History of the Ethiopian Bible and Early Church Canon
A Unique Biblical Tradition
The Ethiopian Bible is one of the oldest and most distinctive Christian scriptures in the world. It is the sacred canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and its sister, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. These communities revere a Bible written primarily in Geʽez, an ancient Semitic language that survives as a liturgical tongue. Unlike Western Bibles, the Ethiopian Bible contains eighty‑one books—forty‑six in the Old Testament and thirty‑five in the New Testament—and includes works absent from Catholic or Protestant canons. Many of these texts, such as 1 Enoch, Jubilees, 1–3 Meqabyan, 4 Baruch, 4 Ezra, and Josippon, survive in complete form thanks to Ethiopian scribes. This unique canon, coupled with Ethiopia’s early adoption of Christianity, offers a window into the fluid boundaries of Scripture in the first centuries and reminds us that the history of the Bible is richer than any single list of books.
Early Christianity and the Formation of the Canon
In the early Christian centuries, “scripture” and “canon” were not synonymous. A community might regard a text as inspired without yet agreeing on a formal list of sacred writings. Jesus and His earliest followers were Jews who revered the Hebrew Scriptures; as Christianity spread, new writings—Gospels, apostolic letters, apocalyptic visions—circulated alongside existing texts. Instead of one fixed Bible, there was a broad library of writings used in worship and teaching.
The first generations of believers operated without a universally recognized collection. Churches in Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and other centers exchanged letters and Gospels, but there were regional differences in which writings were read. By the second century, figures like Marcion forced the question of authority: Marcion rejected the Old Testament and compiled a truncated canon of his own, prompting others to define orthodoxy in contrast. Irenaeus of Lyons appealed to “fourfold” Gospel tradition to reject Gnostic texts, while the Muratorian fragment (a late second‑century list) reflected an early attempt to distinguish accepted books from others. Still, there remained no binding decree; various texts such as the Shepherd of Hermas, the Epistle of Barnabas, and Didache enjoyed wide usage in some circles but were excluded later.
Stages in New Testament Canonization
Historians usually describe three broad phases in the canonization of the New Testament:
First–Second Centuries: Fluidity and Usage – All twenty‑seven documents now found in the New Testament were written by the end of the first century, but no authoritative list existed. Churches treasured multiple Gospels, apostolic letters, and apocalyptic works, often copying and circulating them together with Jewish Scripture. Diversity of practice meant that a work considered scripture in one area might be unknown in another.
Second to Early Fourth Centuries: Debate and Grouping – As Christian communities faced persecutions and theological controversies, leaders began discussing which texts to regard as normative. Writers like Origen, Eusebius, and Cyril of Jerusalem distinguished between books “accepted by all” (the four Gospels, Acts, Paul’s letters, 1 Peter, 1 John) and those “disputed” or “spurious.” However, even into the early 300s there were disagreements about Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, and Revelation.
Fourth to Fifth Centuries: Authoritative Lists – The first known catalogue matching the modern New Testament is Athanasius of Alexandria’s Festal Letter of 367, which listed twenty‑seven books and declared that nothing could be added or removed. Soon after, regional councils such as Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) ratified similar lists, affirming the twenty‑seven books for use in liturgy. By the sixth century, most Christian traditions had adopted this canon, though the Ethiopian Church would maintain a broader collection.
These stages show that the early church’s concept of canon developed gradually. The eventual consensus around twenty‑seven New Testament books was shaped by apostolic connection, widespread liturgical use, doctrinal coherence, and the judgment of church leaders.
The Introduction of Christianity to Ethiopia
Christianity reached the Aksumite Empire in the fourth century. According to Ethiopian tradition, merchants from Rome and missionaries from Syria and Egypt arrived at the royal court around the time of King Ezana. The most famous missionary was Frumentius, known in Ethiopia as Abba Selama (“Father of Peace”). Captured as a boy and raised in Aksum, Frumentius gained the king’s trust and later travelled to Alexandria, where he was consecrated bishop by Athanasius. Returning to Aksum, he established the first Ethiopian church hierarchy and encouraged translation of the Scriptures.
Ethiopia’s conversion was not a mere extension of Roman Christianity; the nation already had long‑standing contact with Judaism and South Arabian religions. Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) had preserved practices such as Sabbath‑keeping and dietary laws. The Kebra Nagast, a medieval national epic, claims that the Queen of Sheba bore Solomon a son, Menelik I, from whom Ethiopian kings descended and that the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Aksum. Whether legendary or historical, this tradition underscores Ethiopia’s self‑identity as an heir of Israel and explains why Old Testament law and extra‑canonical Jewish traditions resonated deeply there.
Translating Scripture into Geʽez
The Bible’s translation into Geʽez began soon after Christianity’s official acceptance. Geʽez, an old Semitic language written in its own script, became the medium through which Ethiopians could hear the Word in their own tongue. Unlike Latin and Greek translations in the West, the Ethiopic translation was not produced at one moment by a single committee; it was a gradual process spanning two or three centuries.
Early sources suggest that translation work began in the mid‑fourth century and continued until at least the sixth century. The Nine Saints, groups of Syrian monks fleeing persecution after the Council of Chalcedon (451), settled in Ethiopia and played a pivotal role. They established monasteries, introduced monasticism, and translated biblical and liturgical texts. By the late fifth century, Aksum had become a thoroughly Christian state with access to much of the Bible in Geʽez.
Scholars debate which sources the translators used. The Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament) was certainly central; Ethiopia had strong ties to the Alexandrian Church, which favored the Greek text. Evidence also indicates that Syriac translations influenced the Ethiopic Bible, reflected in loanwords like haimanot (faith) and gehannam (hell). Some passages show Hebrew influence, possibly through Jewish communities that advised translators. Therefore, the Ethiopic version is best understood as a daughter translation of the Septuagint enriched by Syriac and perhaps Hebrew traditions. The translators’ varying abilities led to a mixture of literal and paraphrased renderings, and different books were translated by different hands.
One striking feature of the Geʽez translation is that it encompassed not only the books later defined as canonical in the West but also many works considered apocryphal or pseudepigraphical elsewhere. In Ethiopia, there was little separation between “canonical” and “extra‑canonical”; all were treated as sacred and inspired. As a result, texts like Enoch, Jubilees, Ascension of Isaiah, Shepherd of Hermas, Epistles of Clement, and Didascalia Apostolorum were translated between the fourth and sixth centuries. This broad scope reveals how Ethiopian Christianity valued a more expansive body of tradition from the outset.
The Ethiopian Biblical Canon
Structure of the Canon
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church organizes its scriptures into two testaments containing eighty‑one books. The Old Testament includes translations of the Pentateuch, historical books, wisdom literature, and prophets familiar to other traditions, alongside works considered deuterocanonical or apocryphal elsewhere. The New Testament comprises the twenty‑seven universally recognized books plus additional writings used for church order and teaching.
Old Testament (46 books) – Contains the traditional Hebrew books, deuterocanonical works like Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, 1–4 Maccabees, and unique Ethiopian texts such as 1–3 Meqabyan (not to be confused with the Greek Maccabees), Book of Jubilees, 1 Enoch, 4 Baruch, 4 Ezra, and Josippon. The Meqabyan books are native Ethiopian narratives about steadfast faith amid pagan oppression; they survive solely in Geʽez and illustrate local storytelling woven into biblical tradition.
New Testament (35 books) – In addition to the standard twenty‑seven books, the Ethiopian canon includes Sinodos (collections of church orders attributed to the apostles), the Book of the Covenant (ethical and liturgical instructions), the Epistles of Clement, the Didascalia (a church manual), the Testament of Our Lord, and the Clementine Recognitions. These texts provide guidance on church structure, worship, and discipline and attest to the Ethiopian Church’s emphasis on tradition alongside scripture.
Unique Features
Retention of Jewish Writings – Books like 1 Enoch and Jubilees reflect ancient Jewish traditions popular in the Second Temple period but later marginalized in Rabbinic Judaism and most Christian churches. Their inclusion shows how Ethiopian Christianity preserved texts valued by early Jews and Christians alike.
Native Ethiopian Literature – The Meqabyan books illustrate how Ethiopian authors integrated biblical themes into local history and legend. Unlike the Greek Maccabees, these books depict different heroes and emphasize perseverance in faith. Their exclusive survival in Geʽez demonstrates Ethiopia’s role as both preserver and creator of scriptural literature.
Church Orders and Apostolic Teachings – The additional New Testament works (Sinodos, Books of the Covenant, Didascalia) reveal an interest in apostolic tradition and ecclesiastical order. They offer insights into early Christian worship, sacraments, and community life, reflecting how Ethiopian Christians viewed scripture and tradition as complementary.
Preservation of Ancient Texts
One of Ethiopia’s most significant contributions to biblical history is the preservation of ancient writings lost elsewhere. Many pseudepigraphical works survive complete only in Geʽez because Ethiopian monasteries kept copying them. For centuries, Western scholars knew of 1 Enoch and Jubilees only through fragments and quotations until 19th‑century explorers brought Geʽez manuscripts to Europe. The discovery of the Garima Gospels, illuminated manuscripts that may date as early as the sixth century, and the continued use of the Abba Garima Monastery as a living center of scriptural transmission demonstrate Ethiopia’s enduring scribal culture.
Ethiopian scribes also preserved Christian apocalyptic literature such as the Ascension of Isaiah, Apocalypse of Peter, and Letter of the Apostles. Their survival offers scholars glimpses into early Christian theology and eschatology. Without Ethiopia, many of these texts would be known only through fragments or later summaries. The Ethiopian canon thus serves as a treasury of ancient Judaism and Christianity.
The Ethiopian Canon and the Early Church
The Ethiopian biblical tradition challenges the notion that a single canon defined Christianity from the beginning. Instead, it highlights the diversity of early Christian communities. While the Roman and Byzantine churches eventually standardized around sixty‑six or seventy‑three books, Ethiopian Christians continued to read a broader collection. This was not because they were unaware of broader church decisions but because they valued a wide range of writings as inspired and useful for teaching.
Studying the Ethiopian canon also prompts a reassessment of how canon formation unfolded. It shows that criteria for inclusion—apostolic authorship, orthodoxy, widespread use—were applied differently in different regions. The presence of works like 1 Enoch in Ethiopia reminds us that many early Christians saw such writings as scripture, and their exclusion in other canons was a historical choice, not an inevitable outcome.
Furthermore, the translation history reveals a polyglot heritage: Greek, Syriac, and Hebrew traditions converged in the Geʽez Bible. Loanwords and textual variants testify to intercultural exchange. The Ethiopian Church’s emphasis on tradition alongside scripture explains why church orders and apostolic teachings remained canonical; for Ethiopian Christians, life in the church was guided by both the Bible and a living tradition.
A Window into Early Christianity
The history of the Ethiopian Bible and the early church canon illustrates how profoundly cultural context shapes scripture. As Christianity spread across the Mediterranean and into Africa, communities preserved, translated, and interpreted sacred texts in ways that met their spiritual needs. Ethiopia’s 81‑book canon, translated into Geʽez between the fourth and sixth centuries, retains voices from ancient Judaism, early Christianity, and local tradition. Its unique contents—1 Enoch, Jubilees, Meqabyan, and church orders—show that canon formation was never monolithic.
For modern readers, the Ethiopian Bible is a reminder that the “Bible” has always been a living, dynamic collection. Studying its history deepens our appreciation for the richness of early Christian literature and highlights Ethiopia’s vital role in preserving texts that might otherwise have vanished. It invites us to consider how diverse communities, guided by the Holy Spirit, discerned God’s word and passed it on through generations. In honoring this tradition, we honor the breadth of Christian heritage and the global journey of the Scriptures.
